Strengthening Rural Sanitation: An Evaluation of Zambia’s Community-Led Total Sanitation ProgramIn 2012, Zambia continued to experience major sanitation and hygiene challenges, with many households lacking access to improved sanitation facilities and a significant portion of the population practicing open defecation. To address these persistent gaps, the Government of Zambia, in partnership with UNICEF and other development agencies, launched the Zambia Sanitation and Hygiene Program (ZSHP) in 2011. Central to the program was the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach, which relies on community engagement, behavioural change, and non-subsidized local action to eliminate open defecation and promote improved sanitation practices.A pre- and post-intervention evaluation was conducted over a three-year period to assess the program’s effectiveness. Surveys were administered to caregivers of young children, and direct observations of household sanitation and hygiene conditions were performed.The findings demonstrate substantial progress. More households adopted improved sanitation facilities, and fewer households were without any form of toilet. Additionally, many communities successfully achieved open defecation-free certification, reflecting strengthened collective responsibility and behavioural change at the village level. Hygiene practices also improved, with increased establishment of designated handwashing areas and more consistent caregiver handwashing during key moments. the evaluation indicates that CLTS implementation contributed significantly to improving sanitation access, reducing open defecation, and enhancing hygiene behaviours among rural households. However, the analysis highlights the need for continued investment, enhanced hygiene promotion, and stronger institutional support to sustain these gains and further advance national and global sanitation targets, particularly those outlined under Sustainable Development Goal 6.